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Wfview is a program that allows many modern Icom ham radio transceivers (such as the IC-7300, IC-9700, IC-7610, IC-R8600 and many others) to be controlled via a computer. wfview shows the gorgeous spectrum display on whatever display is connected, including projectors, touch screens, and TVs. wfview allows for full radio control from a computer keyboard and basic control from a numeric keypad. It works under Windows, Linux and MacOS

Amateur Television (ATV) operations involve transmitting and receiving live or recorded video and audio signals over amateur radio frequencies. Unlike narrow-band modes, ATV utilizes a wider bandwidth to convey video information, often requiring specialized transceivers, antennas, and signal processing equipment. This mode allows hams to share visual content, demonstrate projects, or conduct video conferences, typically on VHF, UHF, and microwave bands due to the bandwidth requirements. The SwissATV resource focuses on the technical aspects and community engagement surrounding ATV within Switzerland. It covers topics relevant to setting up ATV stations, understanding signal propagation at higher frequencies, and participating in local ATV activities. The site serves as a central point for Swiss ATV operators to exchange knowledge and coordinate transmissions, fostering the growth of this specialized amateur radio mode.

XieGu Tech manufactures quality amateur radio transceivers and amplifiers designed by BG8HT. Xiegu focus is portable and self contained transceivers perfect for your next SOTA, hiking trip or travel experience.

A Rig control CAT interface schematic suitable for both the Yaesu FT-817 and FT-100 transceivers.

Operating a modern amateur radio station, particularly for advanced digital modes or microwave experiments, often requires precise test and measurement equipment. This resource from NI (National Instruments), now part of Emerson, showcases a wide array of hardware and software solutions designed for demanding test objectives. Their portfolio includes modular instruments and configurable software interfaces, such as _LabVIEW_ and _TestStand_, which integrate AI assistance via _NI Nigel™ AI_ for code completion and sequence building. For those involved in RF and microwave work, the offerings extend to vector signal transceivers, RF signal generators, software-defined radios, and spectrum analyzers. These tools are crucial for characterizing antenna performance, optimizing transceiver circuits, or developing custom radio systems. The company emphasizes its 50 years of innovation, with 40 years dedicated to _LabVIEW_, highlighting a long-standing commitment to engineering solutions. The site also details products for data acquisition, electronic test, and wireless design, covering components like CompactDAQ modules for precise sensor measurements and various communication bus interfaces. Their events and perspectives sections offer insights into topics such as 5G technology and strategies for breaking out of testing silos, providing a broader context for their measurement solutions.

The Cambridge University Wireless Society (CUWS) serves as the amateur radio society for students and staff at Cambridge and Anglia Ruskin Universities, fostering interest and activity in two-way radio communication. It provides a platform for members to engage with various aspects of amateur radio, including operating, technical experimentation, and community building within the university environment. The society's activities typically encompass station operation, antenna construction, and participation in contests and DXing. As a university-affiliated club, CUWS offers practical experience in radio theory and application, often utilizing the club callsign _G6UW_. Members learn about different modes of operation, such as CW, SSB, and digital modes, and gain hands-on experience with transceivers and associated equipment. The society's focus includes preparing members for amateur radio licensing exams and promoting ethical operating practices. Participation in CUWS provides a foundation for future involvement in the broader amateur radio community.

Over 100 distinct RF connector types are available from AIR802, including popular UHF series PL-259 plugs and SO-239 sockets, designed for a wide array of coaxial cable dimensions. The company specializes in producing connectors compatible with common amateur radio cables like RG-8, RG-213, and RG-58, ensuring reliable signal integrity for antenna systems and shack interconnections. Their product line extends to various coaxial cable types and pre-made antenna cable assemblies, offering ready-to-deploy solutions for hams. AIR802 also provides custom cable assemblies and pigtails, catering to specific installation requirements for transceivers, tuners, and amplifiers. These pre-fabricated options simplify station setup, reducing the need for field termination of connectors. Michael Bryant is the contact for inquiries regarding their range of RF components, which are essential for building robust and efficient amateur radio stations.

This caution applies to all Icom HF transceivers. Based on a discussion with Matt Erickson, KK5DR

One of the featured products, the V350 CAMP, is a multiband vertical antenna covering 6 to 80 meters, priced at R$ 799,90, demonstrating the range of ready-to-use solutions available. The inventory includes various antenna types such as **HF**, **VHF**, and **UHF** designs, along with dual-band options like the J-Pole Dual V/UHF for R$ 235,00. For those building their own arrays, the store stocks essential components like element holders, clamps, junction boxes, and aluminum plates, alongside specialized items such as the KIT Isolador Central Dipolo - 01DX for R$ 99,90. The shop also provides a comprehensive selection of installation hardware, including diverse antenna mounts, PTT supports, and various coaxial cables like RG58 and RG213, with prices up to R$ 849,90 for RG213. Connectors such as UHF male PL259 and various adapters are readily available, ensuring compatibility for different setups. Additionally, specialized items like side handles for popular transceivers such as the FT857/891 and IC7300 are offered, catering to specific equipment needs. Beyond antennas, the store supplies practical accessories like transport bags, 12V power cables for transceivers, and even branded merchandise like the Antena Kit mug. Rodrigo Gonçalves, PP5BT, manages the operation from Blumenau, SC, Brazil, providing direct contact via WhatsApp at +55 47 9.9985.0155.

Italian ham radio swap site for transceivers, test equipment and manuals

Amateur radio speakers for modern amateur radio transceivers

Over 150 pages of content are dedicated to maximizing activity on the 6-meter band, often referred to as the _Magic Band_. The resource details various propagation modes, including sporadic E, F2, and tropospheric ducting, providing insights into their characteristics and how to leverage them for DX contacts. It also covers essential equipment considerations, from transceivers and transverters to specific antenna designs optimized for 50 MHz operation, such as Yagis and Moxon antennas. The eBook presents strategies for participating in 6-meter contests and pursuing awards like _VUCC_, offering practical advice on logging software and operating techniques. It includes discussions on software tools useful for predicting propagation and managing contacts, alongside guidance on finding and utilizing DX maps to identify openings. The author, K5ND, shares his extensive experience to help operators achieve successful 6-meter DXing. Specific sections address the code of practice for 50 MHz operations and provide assistance in locating rare DX opportunities. The content is structured to guide both new and experienced operators through the nuances of the band, from initial setup to advanced operating strategies.

Station QRP presents various **circuit diagrams** for constructing low-power AM vacuum tube shortwave transmitters, catering to enthusiasts interested in vintage radio technology. The resource details schematics ranging from simple to more complex designs, enabling hams to build their own QRP AM transmitters for operation on frequencies like 6.925 kHz AM. It emphasizes the use of vacuum tubes, providing a technical foundation for understanding and replicating classic shortwave broadcasting methods. The content is geared towards those who enjoy the hands-on aspect of electronics and the unique characteristics of tube-based RF circuits. Building these transmitters allows operators to experience the nostalgia of early shortwave radio, with the site specifically mentioning a pioneer station on 6.925 kHz AM. The designs facilitate experimentation with low-power AM transmission, offering practical application for homebrew projects. The focus on QRP (low power) operation aligns with a segment of the amateur radio community that values efficiency and minimalist setups, providing a distinct alternative to modern solid-state transceivers.

Voldatech, a manufacturer based in China, produces a range of RF feeder cables and site components essential for amateur radio installations and telecommunication infrastructure. Their product line includes various types of coaxial cables, such as **50 Ohm** and 75 Ohm options, along with a comprehensive selection of connectors like N-type, UHF, and BNC. These components are critical for maintaining signal integrity and minimizing loss in antenna systems, whether for a home shack or a remote DXpedition setup. The company's focus on _RF Coax cables_ and connectors directly supports the needs of radio amateurs seeking reliable transmission lines for their transceivers and antennas. Amateurs often compare Voldatech's offerings to established brands, evaluating factors such as impedance matching, shielding effectiveness, and durability under various environmental conditions. The availability of diverse cable types allows operators to select optimal solutions for different frequency bands and power levels, from QRP to high-power amplifier setups. Their products are particularly relevant for those constructing new antenna arrays or upgrading existing feedline systems, aiming to achieve maximum power transfer and reduce standing wave ratio (SWR) for efficient signal propagation.

A 15-pin data switch, typically a rotary-knob type designed for DB-25 connectors, forms the basis for this microphone selector project. The resource details the conversion process, which involves replacing the original DB-25 connectors with **RJ-45** or **RJ-12** jacks to accommodate modern amateur radio microphones. It specifically addresses wiring for radios like the Icom IC-706 series (including the IC-7000 and IC-703) and Yaesu transceivers such as the FT-857, FT-897, FT-817, FT-7800, FT-7900, FT-8800, FT-8900, FTM-100, and FTM-400. The design ensures all microphone lines are switched straight through, with separate contacts for external speaker/headphone jacks, allowing simultaneous switching. The project emphasizes the practical application of switching between a headset for net control and a hand mic for rag-chewing without repeatedly plugging and unplugging cables. It highlights modifications to the original concept, such as eliminating a separate PTT jack by integrating PTT into headset cables and building the external speaker cable directly into the selector. The article provides guidance on managing the non-color-coded wiring often found in these data switches by soldering wires one by one from old to new connectors, ensuring correct pin alignment. This approach simplifies the conversion, making it accessible for hams seeking a functional and cost-effective mic switching solution.

Complete microphone wiring handbook for most popular radio transceivers provided by Astatic Microphones.

Presents various amateur radio topics through blog posts, detailing operational experiences and technical insights from the perspective of SV2YC. The content frequently discusses antenna projects, such as a **portable 20m/40m dipole** designed for rapid deployment, and explores the performance characteristics of different wire configurations in varied field conditions. Observations on propagation and band activity across the HF spectrum are also regularly documented, providing practical context for fellow operators. Specific entries often include detailed accounts of **DX contacts** and participation in minor contests, outlining station setup, power levels, and antenna choices. The blog also covers modifications to commercial transceivers and homebrew accessory construction, offering practical advice on improving station efficiency and functionality. Further posts delve into software applications for logging and digital modes, sharing configurations and operational tips for maximizing their utility in daily amateur radio activities.

Amateur radio repeaters, often designated by an "R" number like _R6_ or _R5_, serve as crucial infrastructure for extending VHF/UHF communications range. This resource from Essex Ham explains the fundamental concept of a repeater, detailing how it receives on one frequency and simultaneously retransmits on another, typically with a 600 kHz offset for 2-meter repeaters. Understanding the input and output frequencies, along with the required CTCSS tone, is essential for successful access, ensuring your signal is processed and relayed across a wider service area. The article clarifies the importance of using the correct _CTCSS_ (Continuous Tone-Coded Squelch System) tone, often referred to as a sub-audible tone, to activate a specific repeater. It also touches upon the concept of _simplex_ operation versus repeater use, highlighting the benefits of repeaters for mobile and handheld transceivers. Proper operating procedures, such as listening before transmitting and keeping transmissions concise, are emphasized to maintain good amateur practice on shared repeater assets.

Schematic diagram circuit to build a RS232 serial interface for the Yaesu FT 1000D, works also as CW Keyer control with Log-EQF software. May be used with other Yaesu HF Transceivers.

Malcom Technical Support Radio Electronics Repair, ICOM Authorized Service Center, also service 1988 and newer Kenwood HF/VHF/UHF transceivers based in Toledo, WA USA

The ARRL's End-Fed Half-Wave (EFHW) Antenna Kit is an easy-to-build four-band antenna designed for 10, 15, 20, and 40 meters. Ideal for portable operations, it includes a 49:1 impedance transformer for compatibility with most transceivers. This project, detailed with step-by-step assembly instructions, involves creating a weatherproof enclosure and impedance matching network. The kit simplifies HF operations and supports multiple configurations, making it a versatile tool for amateur radio opertors.

SimpleHRR is a free ham radio remote control web application (or web app) hosted by Raspberry Pi in the ham station to remote control a ham radio HF transceiver through a supported web browser from a Desktop PC, Laptop or Android phone. Supports recent ICOM IC-7x series transceivers

An article by MicroHam on using the Icom PW-1 RF Power Amplifier safely and with non-Icom transceivers.

QSK 2500 enhances HF amplifiers by enabling full break-in (_QSK_) operation, allowing for seamless communication during CW transmissions. This device supports **all** HF transceivers that are QSK-compatible, ensuring versatility across various setups. The QSK 2500 facilitates quick switching between transmit and receive modes, which is crucial for effective DXing and contesting. With its straightforward installation, operators can achieve **improved** responsiveness in their communications without the need for extensive modifications to their existing amplifiers. This project is particularly beneficial for those engaged in high-speed CW operations, where timing is critical.

Manufacturer of two way radios based in Shenzhen China. Retevis produce commercial, personal and amateur radio handheld and mobile transceivers, either for analog and digital modes. Retevis produce also two-way radio accessories and repeaters.

UHSDR stands for UniversalHamSoftwareDefinedRadio. The project provides the firmware to run standalone HAM transceivers. It currently supports STM32F4 and STM32F7 MCU based QSD designs.

This is an uncommon loop antenna, hombrewed without the small feeding loop. With small spare parts is possible to build a loop antenna tuner for portable usage tha can ben used with common HF QRP transceivers

If your multiple transceiver station is suffering of intrastation interference, this handy and inexpensive band pass filters and help you. QST article Sept 1988

Ham Radio Dealer based in Holland dealers of most relevant ham radio brands. Transceivers, antennas and accessories for amateur radio and marine radio markets.

This is a remote antenna switch I use in my attic to connect transceivers in the basement to multiple antennas in the attic. The goal of this project is to be able to remotely connect one of the antennas in the attic to the only antenna cable available.

First released in 1988, _SWLog_ is a comprehensive suite of applications providing logging and remote control for both amateur radio and shortwave, utility, and broadcast listening. It integrates program schedules from sources like _HFCC_, _ILGRadio_, and _EiBi_ for broadcast reception, while also linking with amateur radio logbooks such as _ClubLog_, _eQSL_, _QRZ_, and _LoTW_. The software supports radio control for various transceivers, including _Flex_, Icom, Yaesu, and Kenwood, alongside interfaces like _FLRig_, _OmniRig_, and _HamLib_. Mobile applications for Android and iOS facilitate on-the-go logging and remote control, seamlessly transferring logs without manual ADIF export. _SWLog_ leverages an enterprise-grade relational database (SQL Server) for robust data management and analytics, enabling features like mapping QSOs by band or state. It offers specific integrations for _POTA_ monitoring, displaying active spots with real-time propagation and automatic radio tuning. The application's scalability allows multiple users to log to a centralized database, suitable for Field Day or DXpeditions. The user interface features modern aesthetics with light, dark, and gray themes, the latter optimized for outdoor visibility during activities like _POTA_ or _SOTA_. The Plus Edition, available for an annual fee, expands capabilities with advanced QSL integration, additional map providers, and enhanced propagation calculations using _VOACAP_.

The article highlights the common absence of modern USB-C ports on handheld ham radios and the limited use of USB for power. The author, [jephthai], shares a solution involving a USB-C cable with power negotiation capabilities, allowing the radio to be powered by USB. By splicing Anderson power pole connectors onto the cable, the radio can now be conveniently powered by a USB battery bank, providing a practical alternative to traditional 12 V batteries for off-grid operations.

The MiniPA Linear Amplifier for HF page discusses the popularity of QRP for HF among ham radio operators, such as those using the Yaesu FT818 or low power SDR transceivers. It explores the use of cheap kits from eBay or Chinese suppliers to build a 70-100W SSB amplifier using IRF530 MOSFET transistors. The article provides a review of the MiniPA design, including its features, components, and assembly process. It also highlights the importance of using a heatsink and forced air cooling for optimal performance. This page is useful for hams looking to enhance their HF rig with a budget-friendly amplifier.

Since 1988, Royal Communications International has been supplying communications equipment designed for the military, professional, and amateur market. We specialize in the sale and service of High Frequency, Single Sideband transceivers that are dependable and easy to use.

On this page, you will find one of my designs; An Audio Selection Panel (ASP). The Audio Selection Panel allows you to control 4 Transceivers and hear the audio through the built-in loudspeaker and on an external boomset (combination Microphone/ headset). On or more transceivers can be selected at a time to transmit and/ or receiv

Original HF magnetic loop antenna designed by the author to work in conjunction with QRP transceivers like the FT-817 in portable operations. In this configuration the loop can operate from 30 to 10 meters. Using a two spires radiator of the same diameter it also covers 40 meters.

A Home made antenna tuner for QRP transceivers. This small tuner is the ideal for portable operations with random length wires or whenever you have not a resonant antenna.

Signal Stuff operates as an online retail outlet specializing in amateur radio antennas and related accessories, with a core mission to financially support educational platforms like HamStudy.org and ExamTools.org. The product line prominently features their Super-Elastic Signal Stick™ antennas, available with SMA-F, SMA-M, and BNC connectors, designed for various handheld transceivers including Baofeng, Icom, Yaesu, and Kenwood models. The site details product specifications, pricing, and a lifetime warranty for the Signal Stick™ antennas, emphasizing their role in funding free ham radio licensing study guides and exam administration software. Proceeds from antenna sales directly contribute to the development and maintenance of HamStudy.org, a free online resource for amateur radio license preparation, and ExamTools.org, software utilized by Volunteer Examiner (VE) teams for efficient exam administration. The site also promotes HamBook.org, a free series of comprehensive study guides, which integrates with the HamStudy app and website through links and QR codes for an adaptive learning experience. This business model links product sales to community support, providing essential tools for aspiring and upgrading amateur radio operators.

CW_Player is a freeware Morse code training program designed for aspiring and experienced radio amateurs. It generates Morse characters, Q codes, abbreviations, and random text, offering 20 customizable lessons for learning Morse code. The software includes a quiz for knowledge testing, CW signal monitoring to decode morse code live, and the ability to create personalized local characters. It generates .wav files for playback, supports Windows features like copy-paste, and integrates easily with transceivers for on-air training. Ideal for beginners, instructors, and hobbyists, CW_Player boosts confidence in CW operations.

Yu produces miniaturized amateur radio transceivers for portable usage. Yu designed and sold the FX-2, FX-4a, and FX-9A. Other products includes the FX-4C, an 80 m through 10 m transceiver that fits in the palm of your hand.

Paul McMahon presents a compact VSWR meter designed for QRP portable use, ideal for SOTA operations with rigs like the FT817. The device, constructed from readily available components, employs a simple resistive bridge for wideband performance from 1.8MHz to 52MHz, with diminishing accuracy at higher frequencies. Key features include no need for external power, simple calibration, and operation with low power levels. The design, detailed with parts lists, schematics, and construction guidelines, ensures a 2:1 worst-case VSWR to protect transceivers during antenna matching. Calibration points are set for accurate VSWR readings at various loads.

Pro Audio Engineering (PAE) supplies products for broadcast and amateur radio applications. The company manufactures heatsinks for _Elecraft_ **KX2** and **KX3** transceivers. PAE also produces AC power supplies for HF transceivers, remote power relays, and Ethernet relays. Machined products from PAE are manufactured in the **USA**. PAE distributes _Fair-Rite_ Mix 31 ferrite snap-it cores and toroid cores in various internal diameters. The product inventory includes commercial monitoring antennas, UQUI transformers, ULP AC power filters, and 3M conductive adhesive copper tape. Offerings also include the AM1 Portable Antenna Mount System. Pro Audio Group, LLC holds the copyright for the company as of 2024 DXZone Focus: _Elecraft_ | _Fair-Rite_ | Heatsinks | Ferrite Cores

A Magnetic Loop Controller project details the construction and operation of an automatic tuning system for magnetic loop antennas, which are resonant circuits using an oversized inductor and an adjustable capacitor. The system employs a stepper motor to precisely adjust the variable capacitor, maintaining optimal resonance across the HF bands. It integrates with various transceivers, including _Icom_, _Kenwood_, and _Yaesu_ models, by monitoring the VFO frequency and adjusting the loop's tuning accordingly. The project provides comprehensive building instructions, a PowerPoint-style presentation, and the full source code for the controller's firmware, enabling hams to replicate and customize the design. The controller's firmware offers diverse functionality, including automatic frequency tracking, manual tuning, and SWR monitoring, significantly enhancing the operational efficiency of magnetic loop antennas, particularly for QRP and portable operations. The design emphasizes accurate capacitor positioning, crucial for achieving low SWR and maximum radiated power. Comparisons with manual tuning methods highlight the benefits of real-time adjustment, especially when operating across different bands or making frequent QSYs. The project's detailed documentation and available source code facilitate experimentation and modification by advanced builders, allowing for tailored performance characteristics.

The page presents JRX, a virtual radio receiver interface written in Java that can connect to about 200 ham radio transceivers and receivers using the Hamlib library. It offers features like 200 read/write memories, a programmable scanner, and spectrum scope, making it easier to use than traditional radios. The article explains the benefits of virtualizing a radio with controls and highlights the advantages of using JRX, especially for radios requiring computer control. Author P. Lutus provides insights on the development of JRX and its improvements over previous virtual radio projects.

Unveil the secrets of efficient Magnetic Loop Antenna control systems, eliminating the hassle of frequent retuning. With real-time tracking and compatibility with various transceivers, including popular models from Elecraft, ICOM, Kenwood, and Yaesu, this controller ensures seamless frequency adjustment. Explore its high-resolution stepper motor and versatile communication capabilities, revolutionizing amateur radio operation.

This project addresses the need for a 50 MHz Amplifier providing substantial power for Australian "Advanced Licensees" permitted to use 400W PEP in the 52-54 MHz band. In regions limited to 100W PEP due to TV channel usage, this initiative aims to enhance power output for transceivers with lower capabilities on the 6m band.

A PDF Presentation for beginners and all those hams tha t wish to approache the moonbounce operations. This presentation is focues on explaining how to begin EME operations withoud expensive or complex station setups, simply using common transceivers and some dedicated digital modes that nowdays are available to the ham radio community and well known.

The _DX EXPLORER_ blog serves as a personal chronicle of amateur radio experiences, particularly emphasizing homebrew projects and DIY radio equipment. It provides insights into constructing various transceivers and receivers, such as the Minimalist CW Transmitter and the Sputnik Regenerative Receiver, offering practical guidance for those new to the hobby. The content often details the assembly and operation of low-cost kits like the $3 Pixie Transceiver, demonstrating accessible entry points into radio construction. Beyond building, the site also features reviews of commercial gear, including the Tidradio TD-H8 Radio, providing an operator's perspective on performance and utility. The author, YO6DXE, shares a learning journey, aiming to inspire fellow enthusiasts to engage with the technical aspects of amateur radio. This resource covers a range of topics from basic circuit explanations to practical operating tips, fostering a deeper understanding of radio principles. The blog's focus on personal experimentation and project documentation makes it a relevant resource for hams interested in hands-on learning.

Twigger is a very lightweight, free ham radio logger designed for Windows, offering seamless integration with transceivers via _TCI_ or OmniRig. This software stores all logged contacts in a SQLite database, with the flexibility to export daily ADIF files for import into a main logger or to send real-time QSO data via UDP in N1MM XML format. It also supports direct, real-time uploads to popular online logbooks like Clublog and QRZ.com, streamlining the logging process for active operators. The application has seen continuous development, with version 1.1.34 fixing an ADIF log importer bug and earlier versions adding crucial features like WSJT-X/JTDX UDP support. Author OE3IDE, Ernst, has incorporated user feedback, including ideas and testing from MW0LGE, to refine the software. Key enhancements include the transition to SQLite for data storage in version 1.1.32, allowing for easy import of previous Twigger ADIFs upon initial startup. The logger also features integrated DX cluster support, enabling users to send spots directly and query QRZ.com for callsign information, which is then cached to reduce redundant queries. The software's compact design and essential logging capabilities make it a practical tool for casual logging or as a secondary logger during contests, with the ability to handle **25 downloads** for version 1.1.34.

Presents DJ5IL's personal amateur radio station, detailing his journey as a licensed operator since 1973. The resource covers his **shack setup**, including an Elecraft K4D, Icom IC-7610, and various vintage transceivers like the Drake 2-B, along with a SPE Expert 1K-FA amplifier. Antenna systems include a PRO.SIS.TEL RD1524T rotary dipole for 40/20/15/10m at 15m height, an 18m vertical dipole with an SGC SG-230 tuner for 3.5-30 MHz, and an inverted-V dipole for 80m. The site features a **QSL gallery** showcasing his custom card designs and outlines his QSL policy, emphasizing the exchange of unique, personalized cards over generic confirmations. It also includes a detailed operator's biography, tracing his early fascination with radio, obtaining his license at 16, and memorable QSOs, such as a contact with his blood-relative W3NZ. The resource also delves into the historical significance of amateur radio's role in pioneering shortwave communication following the 1912 International Radiotelegraph Convention, which initially relegated amateurs to wavelengths of 200 meters and shorter. DJ5IL's philosophy on "ham spirit" is discussed, stressing the unpolitical nature of amateur radio as a global fraternity.